What is Spatial Science in Geography?
Have you ever wondered how the location services on your phone seem to be eerily accurate in determining where you are, even when you’re on the move? Do you ever wonder how planners choose where to put fire hydrants or green spaces? These decisions and services are possible thanks to spatial scientists and GIS specialists who monitor, observe, and measure our environment to develop macro-level insights so organizations can tailor their services to the people and environment around them.
But What Is Spatial Science?
Spatial science refers to any discipline that analyzes and visualizes our environment. It spans studies like geography and urban planning but intersects with fields that study how humans interact with their environment, such as history, sociology, and psychology. Spatial science is truly an interdisciplinary field, using methods from mathematics, statistics, geography, and more to develop insights and measure events.
On the other hand, geography balances human and physical geography to comprehensively explain how things came to be, while spatial science emphasizes scientific methods and technology to explain findings. Geography can be divided into three subcategories: human, physical, and technical. Human geography closely studies the interaction between humans and the Earth, examining how societies are shaped and focusing on cultural, political, societal, and economic impacts. Physical geography focuses on the Earth as an individual entity, examining its seasons, oceans, lands, atmosphere, and climate to identify and mitigate problems. Technical geography is the subset of geography that encompasses the spatial sciences, focusing on developing tools and techniques to capture and analyze spatial data.
Credit: BrainKart
Technical geography covers a wide range of subdisciplines and often crosses over into human and physical geography to apply theories and explain practical representations of concepts. Due to the quick but relatively siloed evolution, technical geography has many subfields and sub-practices that have different names depending on country and practitioner, but for the purposes of this article, its main subsets include geographic information science (GISc), geomatics, and geoinformatics. Geographical information science is a discipline that studies geographic information and provides a foundation for understanding and interpreting it. Geomatics is a discipline that focuses on developing practical methods of collecting, analyzing, and managing geographic data. Geoinformatics is an intersectional field between geography and computer science that focuses on developing and programming tools (software, processes) that can process geographic information.
Another important subfield of technical geography is quantitative geography, which gained prominence during the quantitative revolution (a period characterized by the shift from descriptive geographic practices to quantitative ones). Quantitative geography develops, tests, and implements scientific methods to analyze and visualize geographic events. This specific domain of geography links nicely with the spatial sciences as it emphasizes empirical and data-driven approaches to understanding spatial relationships of human and physical geographic phenomena.
Evolution of Technical Geography
The birth of geography traces back to the Greeks, who called the study of the environment "geography" by merging the word' geo,' which means 'The Earth' with 'graphien,' which means 'to describe.' The origination of technical geography appeared in a 1749 book by Edward Cave, who dedicated a quarter of the work to aspects of technical geography. The section focused on globes and maps, cartography, and map projection and emphasized that technical geography is a distinct component of geography with its own theories and methods. Later on, Claudius Ptolemy wrote a piece called "Geography" (also referred to as Geographia and Cosmographia). He introduced the concept of using coordinates, longitude, and latitude to create and reproduce maps. Ptolemy actively employed mathematical concepts in his geography pursuits, and for almost 15 centuries, Ptolemy's "Geography" was the most detailed visualization of Europe and Asia, earning him a place in the history of geography.
Ptolemy’s ‘Geographia’ Credit: Britannica.
In the early 20th century, there was a push to include technical geography in university geography courses. By 1917, technical geography courses were taught in British universities, focusing on mathematical and astronomical geography concepts and cartography. However, after World War 2 brought significant advancements in the field, there was a push for technical geography to become its own distinct practice rather than existing to support human and physical geography theories.
Important Technology in Technical Geography
The emphasis on scientific methods was a positive shift, and three technologies developed and honed during the 20th century as a result were remote sensing, geographical information systems, and the global positioning system.
Remote sensing is a process of collecting and observing characteristics of a given area based on the radiation absorbed, reflected, or emitted from a distance. Typically, remote sensing is done using sensors located in satellites or aircrafts, but it can also be found aboard vessels monitoring the ocean floor. The Landsat program, launched by NASA in 1972, is the primary source of remote sensing information. Remote sensing imagery can be useful in tracking the progression of forest fires to help first responders, the movement of clouds to predict weather, and the ocean floor's topography to observe geographic features.
Credit: SigmaEarth
Geographical information systems (GIS) are computer systems that help collect, analyze, and interpret geospatial data and present it in an actionable way. GIS merges seemingly unrelated datasets to create larger-picture insights, show users areas of overlap, and provide a deeper understanding of spatial relationships. For more information about geospatial data and GIS, check out our blog post.
GIS Unpacked Credit: National Geographic
From Google Maps to recording an evening jog, the Global Positioning System is integrated into all of our lives. In the 1960s, during the Space Race, scientists at Johns Hopkins University discovered the Doppler Effect after they noticed that USSR satellite Sputnik’s radio wave frequency increased as it approached and decreased as it left. With this knowledge in mind, they decided to put the concept into practice as a potential locational device. The launch of the first satellite, Transit, opened up doors for advanced military operations as locations were much more accurate and readily available with the Transit program. Later, in 1978, after three different GPS-related programs had succeeded, the first Navstar (now the modern GPS) was launched and contained the best parts of each of the previous programs. By 1983, the Reagan administration released GPS to the public, and commercial air travel and navigation agencies began leveraging its locational abilities. Now, GPS is used in various everyday functions and actively contributes to economic benefits and individual cost reduction.
Credit: E2 Link Tracker.com
Techniques and Tools
Technical geography, with its many subfields and subcategories, is united by a common thread—the use of tools and techniques with real-world applications. These are not just theoretical concepts, but actively used in various industries and fields, making the study of technical geography highly relevant and important. From GIS to geoinformatics, these tools are shaping our understanding of the world and helping us make informed decisions in urban planning, environmental management, and many other areas.
Cartography, the study and practice of map-making, forms the basis of geography and its studies. Cartographists follow several objectives to ensure that the maps produced are accurate, understandable, and can be reproduced. The practice of map editing identifies which physical or abstract traits need to be mapped out. Traits can be anything tangible, like roads or landmarks, to intangible concepts, like the boundaries of a religious belief or the influence of a political party. Map projection relies on transforming data so that it can be represented on a flat surface or reverted to a state compatible with a spherical globe. The generalization of maps ensures that only relevant characteristics are represented on the map and that any removal of information does not hinder the map's understandability. Finally, map design concerns the presentation of the information, and designers ensure that elements of the map are organized in the most appropriate fashion. For a deeper understanding of the history of cartography, check out our article.
Geostatistics is a branch of statistics that focuses on spatiotemporal datasets. These datasets combine the three dimensions of space—height, length, and width—with the singular dimension of time, providing analysts with insights into where and when something occurs. Geostatistics is extremely useful in producing probabilities and is currently applied in fields ranging from military logistics to epidemiology.
Geovisualization—also known as cartographic visualization—refers to the visualization and analysis of spatial data through interactive platforms. With visualization, users can remove and add informational layers to expose unique insights. Further, users can manipulate datasets on some platforms, introducing predictive capabilities that can be used to predict the effects of natural disasters or large-scale population changes.
Photogrammetry is a set of techniques that provide precise and accurate measurements of real-world items from digital or aerial images. It does this by analyzing the differences in an object's characteristics between two photos, generating spatial information such as size. There are two main types of photogrammetry: aerial and close-range. Aerial photogrammetry, using sensors in satellites or drones, collects overlapping aerial images to produce orthomosaics or digital elevation data. On the other hand, close-range photogrammetry uses horizontal, oblique, and upward perspectives of land surface objects to create 3D models and orthoimages, which are then used to analyze the features of objects such as buildings. This level of precision and accuracy makes photogrammetry an essential tool in the field of spatial data analysis and surveying techniques.
Surveying involves selecting 2D or 3D position points and determining distances, angles, and slopes between them. Additionally, using Total Stations, commonly used instruments in surveying, surveyors capture information about the land area, which can later be used in map creation. Several types of surveying, ranging from aerial to topological, help surveyors determine the characteristics of regions of interest.
Want a demonstration of these tools and techniques? Head to Nova and use our sample data (located here) to create your own orthomosaic. Mess around with our map layer details and bring the geospatial data to life!
What types of spatial relationships are they studying?
We've discussed what the spatial sciences are, how they relate to geography, and the subsections of geography that overlap with them, but now you're wondering what they're actually studying! When discussing areas, there are four spatial relationship types: adjacency, contiguity, overlap, and proximity. Adjacency occurs when two objects share the same border or, in other words, are right next to each other. For example, Canada and the US would be considered adjacent entities. Contiguity is when two or more entities (states, countries, cities) share the same border. The most common examples of contiguity are the 48 states that comprise the majority of the US (excluding Hawaii and Alaska) and the contiguous European Union (excluding Finland, Sweden, and Ireland). Overlap is when one object shares the exact location of another object. Overlap is most commonly observed in the abstract sense, such as regional delineations (where does Asia become Southeast Asia?). The last relationship type, proximity, denotes a spatial relationship between two objects where an observer can establish a connection with them without requiring physical contact. Note that objects can cover, contain, and cross with other features within these relationships. When discussing lines (roads) or points (landmarks), different spatial patterns can be observed. Lines can cross, pass through, separate, and come together, while points can be situated on or next to lines, within a given area, or found on boundaries.
Using the information they collect, spatial scientists can provide key spatiotemporal insights that have practical applications in a range of fields. Let's examine some of the industries and disciplines that benefit from spatial data and GIS.
Urban and Infrastructure Planning:
Governments and urban planners can leverage spatial data and GIS technology to make strategic decisions which take into account a variety of factors like population size, demographics, climate change impacts, community resource allocations, and more. With GIS, urban planners can create simulations of potential outcomes and identify infrastructure development plans with the greatest utility and benefit. Making informed decisions using spatial data can help agencies make the right choice, taking into account cost-efficiency and long term success.
Wildlife Conservation and Biodiversity Preservation:
GIS helps expose spatial patterns so conservationists can monitor changes and mitigate any issues threatening ecosystems or species. Conservationists can leverage geospatial data to track migration patterns, proximity of nearby species, and plot crucial landmarks within ecosystems such as wolf dens, water springs, and caves. GIS can also tell users areas of concern such as eroded mountain sides, deforested regions, or drought ridden locations. Additionally, in a world that is changing as rapidly as ours, monitoring the impacts of climate change on ecosystems is more important than ever for conservationists. Using GIS, analysts can create simulations and predictions for events and create mitigation plans to save flora, fauna, and the overall ecosystem.
Business Development, Sales and Marketing:
GIS technology can leverage historical data and population maps to help businesses assess potential customer identities, new market opportunities, and potential new service locations. Access to purchase history, population demographics information, and past trends can give companies a unique insight into what may or may not be working for them, taking out the guesswork.
The field of geography is expanding daily, driven by the evolving world we live in. This expansion opens up numerous avenues to apply spatial sciences for practical purposes. However, due to the rapid expansion of the field, there is debate about what classifies as geography, and what lies within neighboring fields. As such, there were a lot of technical terms, so don’t be discouraged if you still can’t tell the difference between geoinformatics and geomatics (many prominent technical and non-technical geographers can’t differentiate them either!) Regardless of what you call it, the opportunities that spatial sciences and geography open up are endless and we will definitely be watching the developments!
If you’re interested in playing around with geospatial data, give Nova a whirl!
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Best,
Cece and The Nova Team